Part IV, Number Five
IV.213 Now we come to another complicated task for VERBS: to indicate TRANSITIVITY.[Note 12] Traditional grammar has obtusely called it “voice”, as if it were a matter of VOWELS and CONSONANTS; so the term has got to go, as many contemporaries agree. We can also chuck out the pair of opposite terms “transitive” and “intransitive”; if the former means some “transition” is expressed, then the later means that none is, without telling what is expressed. Nor can I make any useful sense of the further division into “intransitive copulative” and “intransitive complete” -- which I had to learn and gabble back as a schoolboy -- and which seem to mean that the “non-transition” somehow involved something more or else nothing more. This reasoning doesn’t get us far, at any rate; each of the three with the VERB “change” [946-48] certainly expresses a transition that nobody, however tactful, could pretend not to notice, yet the first two [946-47] would be “transitive” (ACTIVE and PASSIVE) and the last [948] “intransitive” (MEDIAL).
[946] Arethusa was the nymph whom Diana changed into a fountain that she might escape from the infatuated river god (Wild Flowers)
[947] Scylla was once a beautiful maiden and was changed by Circe into a snaky monster with six heads. (Bullfinch)
[948] With one terrific yell the cat sprang up and instantly changed into a tall man (Prince Hyacinth)
Our teachers never offered to explain why those terms were used. Luckily, their (invented) sentences tipped me off as to what was involved.
IV.214 My own plan is first to present three main CLASSES of TRANSITIVITY and then, in Part V, expound the “functional” SUB-CLASSES that yield a much sharper picture and open further out into cognitive and social perspectives as well as linguistic ones.
IV.215 All the data in the table for the TENSES and ASPECTS were deliberately chosen in the ACTIVE, yet another term that is not fully felicitous. It invites a vigorous vision of somebody (SUBJECT) “doing” something (VERB) to somebody (OBJECT) -- presumably an “agent” that is intentionally “acting” upon a “target, as in:
[949] A boy of 11 beat off a drunken sex attacker who jumped on his mother in a churchyard. The boy kicked and punched the man after he forced his mother to the ground at St Benedict’s. (Today)
[950] A man in the crowd suggested that if Joyce thought Nazi Germany such a wonderful place, he ought to go there; Joyce then punched the heckler in the face. (Hitler’s Englishman)
But this vision is far too limited for the term, which must also cover more varied data like these:
[951] A cow came flying out of its trailer, sent police scrambling, and left two police cars going up in flames. (San Antonio News)
[952] People used to talk about a time when the volcano also spat flames and rocks into the sky (Indigo)
No corresponding intention, destructive or not, can be sanely attributed to an airborne cow whose trailer came unlatched, much less to a volcano that must yield to heat and pressure from below. “Action” as such hardly seems a fitting term here.
IV.216 All the same, the terms are here to stay. And the ordinary meaning of “active” is decidedly AMELIORATIVE, modifying for example, “co-operation”, “citizenship”, “growing season”, “marketing”, “trading”, and of course “life” (BNC data) -- what people favour.
IV.217 Conversely, the TRANSITIVITY with the term PASSIVE invites a vigorous vision of somebody (the SUBJECT) “getting done” something (PAST PARTICIPLE of the VERB ) to them by somebody (ADVERBIAL AGENT in the PATTERN of a PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE), as in:
[953] A 54-year-old truck driver was killed by a flying cow when he crashed after another driver knocked the cow into his truck on U.S. 160 near Kayenta, Ariz. (uExpress)
[954] When Reg Weston, 78, a retired Press Association journalist, began to boo the Prime Minister, he was kicked, punched and hit with an umbrella by a cohort of silver-haired ladies before his poster “Rich Tories are the real poll tax parasites”, which was stamped on and ripped up. (Telegraph)
Here, the ordinary meaning of “passive” is decidedly PEJORATIVE, modifying, for example, “submission”, “harassment”, “victim”, “pain”, “sufferer”, “rag doll”, but, intriguingly, not “life” (BNC data) -- what people don’t favour.
IV.218 I cannot but fancy that this ordinary disfavour has entrenched the habit of frowning upon the grammatical PASSIVE by generations of English teachers, grammarians, and style manuals (II.9). These two contemporary data samples (one British, one Canadian) can show how little insight has been achieved by the whole history of antagonism:
[955] Never use the passive voice. […] The passive voice is much weaker in the impression it makes. (Student’s Guide to Success)
[956] In most cases, avoid the passive in favor of the more concise active voice. A sentence is more effective when it centers on a subject that is doing something, rather than a subject that is being acted upon. […] The main problem with passive sentences is that they are wordy (University of Victoria Writer’s Guide)WWW
The glibness and vapidity of such advice frankly depress me. Generically, PASSIVES are not “weaker” and barely any “wordier” than corresponding ACTIVES would be. The choice depends mainly on BALANCE. In suitable contexts, the SUBJECT can be made not just the TOPIC -- the point of orientation for what is being said -- but also the FOCUS -- the centre of attention. In [949], the initiative belonged to the courageous “boy”, and in [950] to the rowdy William Joyce (nicknamed “Lord Haw-Haw”) -- who in fact did go to Germany to serve Hitler -- whereas the “attacker” and the “heckler” are handled as recipients of violence which, so these NOUNS suggest, they brought upon themselves. In [953-54], the victims are the TOPICS, but the FOCUS is shared by the hapless “truck driver” and the frail, elderly “journalist”, but also by the perpetrators of the violence, the “flying cow” and the (not dissimilar) “Tory ladies”, who attain some weight and surprise value by coming late in the CLAUSE (cf. xxx).
IV.219 Discourse can indicate quite emphatically why PASSIVES were chosen alongside ACTIVES, as in these two openings of news reports;
[957] Five people were treated for shock after loyalist bombers struck at a Belfast house. Windows were shattered in the blast […] The bomb was planted outside the house shortly before 1 am. (Belfast Telegraph)
[958] At one o’clock in the morning a petrol bomb shattered the window in Kathy Sellers’ front room, and shot flames across the floor and up the curtains. Ms Sellers was not at home. She was under police custody waiting to continue her testimony against the man alleged to be Washington’s most powerful drug lord (Independent)
Whoever says [957] is “weak” needs a goodly “blast” to wake them up. The PASSIVES are used in [957] to assign the TOPIC first to the victims, then to the “windows” that helped cause the “shock”, and finally to the “bomb”. [958], in contrast, assigns the TOPIC right off to the “petrol bomb” before telling the fate of the “window” and the fiery home redecoration.
IV.220 Now let’s examine the contrary choices (I put “?” where I have to guess):
[957a] A hospital? – doctors? – paramedics? treated five people for shock after a Belfast house was struck at by loyalist bombers. The blast shattered windows. […] Bombers? – anarchists? – drunks? planted the bomb outside the house shortly before 1 am.
[958a] At one o’clock in the morning the window in Kathy Sellers’ front room was shattered by a petrol bomb, and flames were shot across the floor and up the curtains.
The choice of TOPICS now render the BALANCE rather awkward: in [957a], FOCUS is deflected away from those “five people” and their “windows”; and in [958a] shifted from the “bomb” onto the “window”, as if the latter merits WEIGHT (cf. § xxx).
IV.221 BALANCE can easily put FOCUS upon the end of a CLAUSE that also merits END WEIGHT (VI.22-25), such as the AGENT of a PASSIVE:
[959] Anderson Cooper is violently blown about by Hurricane Rita as he talks into a camera lens lashed with water, and hangs onto a mailbox as he is hit by a flying pig. (New York Times)
Injury to insult, and in a downright scurrilous manner! No doubt the pig continued its flight in high dudgeon.
IV.222 As a more serious matter, I have noted before that certain PATTERNS of the PASSIVE are much inclined toward PEJORATIVE ATTITUDE, such as AUXILIARY “get” rather than “be”, as in [960]; and, far more consistently, AUXILIARY be + to + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE, as in [961] (cf. II.8).
[960] The Monkey jumped; but he got killed from the sharp bamboo-points on which he landed. (Philippine Folk-Tales)
[961] I am to be hang’d in chains! (Spectator)
Yet I found none of the hand-waving detractors of the PASSIVE, like those quoted in [955-56], pointing out these tendencies -- hard to do, I suppose, without surveying authentic data.
IV.223 Here now is a corresponding table with the system of TENSES and ASPECTS for the PASSIVE. Again, all examples are authentic; I picked the VERB “see”, but sometimes had to substitute another for lack of data.
Present: is seen
[962] When the campanile is seen from a distance, it seems to belong to some strange Expressionist church (Independent)WWW
Present Progressive: is being seen
[963] In California, a near-adult Masked Booby is being seen in the vicinity of Mugu Rock (NARBA Bird Sightings)WWW
Present Predecessive: has been seen
[964] The ghost of William Faulkner has been seen writing on the wall in one of the rooms (Haunted Places in Mississippi)WWW
Present Predecessive Progressive: has been being seen
[965] At Ottawa, we walked in to the spot where the Vermilion Flycatcher has been being seen. (Ohio Birds)WWW
Present Successive: is going to be seen
[966] That’s what Bowstreet brings to the table and is going to be seen as a whole new category of software. (infoworld)WWW
Present Successive Progressive: is going to be being played
[967] “Great hockey” is going to be being played somewhere else, not in the NHL. (National Hockey League)WWW
Present Successive Predecessive: is going to have been seen
[968] This overhead describes some of the complexities that have been observed in research studies of the potential health effects of electromagnetic fields. And I know this is going to have been seen before (Carl Blackman)WWW
Past: was seen
[969] At six the next morning the island of Tenerife was seen right ahead (New South Wales)
Past Progressive: was being seen
[970] The revelation of “bribe” has given an entirely new twist to the murder of the Congress councillor which was being seen as a simple love triangle crumbling (India Daily Excelsior)WWW
Past Predecessive: had been seen
[971] In the London Standard, it is said that, upon the morning of Jan. 4, an unknown airship had been seen over Dover (New Lands)WWW
Past Predecessive Progressive: had been being seen
[972] A note on a bulletin board said that the Lucifer (“bill downcurved; male has green crown, purple throat, long tail”) had been being seen on Feeder C, so I sat watching that feeder avidly (Melinda Varian)WWW
Past Successive: was going to be seen
[973] Business suits might have been more appropriate for a show that was going to be seen by a predominantly urban audience. (Fishing Warehouse)WWW
Past Successive Progressive: was going to be being used
[974] And this is one of the characteristics of a person that was going to be being used by God (Calvary Chapel)WWW
Past Successive Predecessive: was going to have been revealed
[975] One of the ideas for “Revelations” that Marvel actually rejected for Spider-Man was that Mary Jane was going to have been revealed as being a hologram all along. (Superhero Hype)WWW
Future: will be seen
[976] But as a consequence of the deflection of light from the star by the sun, the star will be seen at a somewhat greater distance from the centre of the sun than corresponds to its real position. (Albert Einstein)
Future Progressive: will be being seen
[977] These are general auditions, and many people will be being seen (LSU Theatre Auditions)WWW
Future Predecessive: will have been seen
[978] The quest for the historical Jesus has gone on for about three centuries. He will have been seen or interpreted differently by different people. (Have Jesus People Seen)WWW
Future Predecessive Progressive: will have been being brought
[979] There must, be a distinction made between commandment-keeping Christians who were serving God prior to the end, and those “new” Christians who will have been being brought to their senses during the Great Tribulation. (Everlasting Kingdom)WWW
Future Successive: will be going to be mated
[980] Well, Willow has finally come into season and she will be going to be mated in another few days (Nigabee Newsletter)WWW
Future Successive Progressive: will be going to be being + PAST PARTICIPLE
[no authentic data found, even on the Internet, just this weak invention:]
[981] I will be going to be being run (Prodict)WWW
Far more than for ACTIVES, the elaborated PATTERNS of the PASSIVES become steadily more marked and less common. To me some of them sound out of BALANCE.
IV.224 A TRANSITIVITY we might call RECIPROCAL seems ACTIVE in form, but in fact involves more than one (packed into the SUBJECT) doing the same something (VERB) to each other (DIRECT OBJECT). As usual, vigorous visions seem easiest to grasp:
[982] they scratched and bit and fought each other (Other People’s Blood)
[983] The men grappled with one another, kicked one another from behind, slapped one another across the face, and tried to bite one another. (Soaked in Seaweed)
Perhaps just because it looks like the ACTIVE in form, this TRANSITIVITY is not so reliably featured in grammar-books. Besides, its cognitive and social ranges are limited by the functions and intentions of reciprocity.
IV.225 Yet linguistically, we can locate a fair range of TENSES and ASPECTS, thanks to at least one immensely popular use of the PATTERN “see each other”, which is the most elastic designation possible for an emotional relationship between two people. Erotic or not, this usage is far from exotic: the data are so common they almost fill up our table of TENSES and ASPECTS:
[984] My boyfriend of a year and a half over the net and I see each other once a month, but before and after we tend to get frustrated. Is this common among long distance romances? (Internet Romance Advice)WWW
[985] She started her period the very day we saw each other. We made love several times over (Pregnancy Forum)WWW
[986] My love will be here and we will see each other and I will finally be able to hold and kiss the girl I love (greatestjournal)WWW
Progressives
[987] The both of you have established that you are interested in each other and have gotten to know each other more. Now you are seeing each other. The difference between this and dating is that this is not really exclusive. (Third Stage “Seeing”)WWW
[988] Over the summer we grew really close, and we weren’t dating, but we were “seeing each other”. (kidshelp)WWW
[989] Broke up, but now we will be seeing each other 8 hours a day five days a week (Single/Happy Forums)WWW
Predecessives
[990] My lover is polyamorous.[Note 13] We have been seeing each other for about 6 months, and I recently moved in with him. (faqs)WWW
Predecessive Progressive
[991] Ladies...I need help picking an anniversary gift. It’s for my girlfriend. We will have been seeing each other for 1 year on May 29 (DVD Talk Forum)WWW
[992] That night Wade had told him that he and Britney had been seeing each other for months behind his back he had been devastated (Just About Time)WWW
[Seeing, indeed!]
Successives
[993] I went on a date with a guy I met on a legit online dating site. We are just two people who are really interested in each other. We are going to see each other again this weekend (Teen Central)WWW
[994] We parted painfully, but knew we were going to see each other again (Surviving Infidelity)WWW
Mercifully perhaps, I found no instances of “will be going to see each other” or “had been going to see each other”. These, erm, romances as shown above are complicated enough.
IV.226 The TRANSITIVITY with the term REFLEXIVE invites a vision of somebody (the SUBJECT) “doing” something (VERB) to themselves. Here, we should first set apart the similar-looking ACTIVES of somebody (the SUBJECT) “doing” something (VERB) to something (DIRECT OBJECT) for themselves (INDIRECT OBJECT).
[995] Jessamy went down to the kitchen and cooked herself a large breakfast. (Forgotten Fire)
[996] Lindsay Lohan has found herself a new man, wealthy American socialite Richie Akiva. (Female First)WWW
IV.227 Also, we can set aside the uses of the REFLEXIVE form for the AGENT of an actual ACTIVE, which is not common anyway:
[997] As a simultaneous call for “Pickwick” burst from his followers, that illustrious man slowly mounted onto the chair, on which he had been previously seated, and addressed the club himself had founded.
[998] Fearing else some messenger that might her mind discover,
Herself hath taught her love himself to write unto her lover.
(Two Gentlemen Of Verona)
IV.228 The genuine REFLEXIVE may involve participating in an action or event in a rather PASSIVE sense, being more actually brought about or upon the SUBJECT by something or somebody else, who may be named [999] but typically is not [1000].The ATTITUDE may be vaguely AMELIORATIVE , though implying self-interest [999-1000], or PEJORATIVE implying wilful misfortune [1001-02].
[999] General Noriega had himself declared formal head of government by his self-appointed National Assembly (Guardian)
[1000] Eck made his way to Rome and got himself appointed papal nuncio. (Roads That Move)
[1001] Anthony Waugh sawed his way through his neighbour’s stair banister to release Sarah Walters, age three, who had got herself trapped playing on the steps (Northern Echo)
[1002] Robert Mitchum also frisked drunks and got himself arrested on a vagrancy charge. (Hollywood Rogues)
IV.229 Like the RECIPROCAL, the genuine REFLEXIVE has been less featured in traditional grammars than ACTIVE and PASSIVE. For one thing, it less readily invites the vigorous visions like [1003-04] -- and even VERBS like these can be metaphorical [1005-06], especially where a physical performance would demand a remarkably limber anatomy [1006].
[1003] When she was just a puppy, she ran smack into the coffee table, knocked herself out. (Chazhound)WWW
[1004] Lana slapped herself in the forehead. “Oh, that’s smart, Lana”, she muttered to herself. “Just run right off with no clue as to where you’re be going.” (aniworlds)WWW
[1005] Heidi really knocked herself out [expended maximum effort] to get the printing and embossing just right; her own special mix of inks (Lilliput Motor Company)WWW
[1006] we shirked the last thirty yards to the summit cairn and I kicked [reproached] myself all the way back to the hotel for being an arrant coward; next day we succeeded and I patted [congratulated] myself on the back. (Wainwright in Scotland)
IV.230 A more formidable issue is the subtle range of INTENTIONS, a topic that is rarely explicated in ordinary “grammars” but comes up fairly often in mine. The most straightforward REFLEXIVES are the almost thoughtless actions people routinely perform on themselves, where the REFLEXIVE PRO-NOUN could sometimes indeed be omitted [1007-08]. Next are the deliberate, less usual actions, where the PRO-NOUN must be used [1009-10]. A contrast appears in unintentional, perhaps harmful and self-inflicted actions [1011-12]. In the most subtle usages, somebody or something does not act so much as arrive at some awareness, perception, or feeling regarding themselves or their own situation, typically without intending it at all [1013-14].
[1007] Alice washed herself in cold water, standing in the bath. (Good Terrorist)
[1008] They brought him hastily out of the dungeon; Joseph shaved himself and put on fresh raiment, and then he came in unto Pharaoh (Legends of the Jews)
[1009] Mr Robert Cole, a CND vice-chairman, was jailed for refusing to pay a £150 fine imposed after he chained himself to a container of nuclear waste. (Guardian)
[1010] The author disguised herself as an eighty-year old and reports considerable discrimination in shops and on public transport, which disappeared when she returned in her normal persona. (Age Concern)BNC
[1011] Climbing into his jeans, Peter nearly tripped himself in his pants legs as he turned to face her. (Undo)
[1012] In vain did the buffalo butt the stone wall. They hurt themselves, broke their horns and mashed their snouts, but could not even scar the wall. (Myths and Legends of the Sioux)
[1013] Michael felt himself a backward boy. This was because of his elder brother Frank, whose academic career was already starred. (Michael Ramsey)
[1014] Mrs Thatcher found herself similarly isolated in a one to 11 minority when the other heads of government endorsed a Declaration of Social Rights. (Guardian)
This last subtle usage is so common that “find oneself” also fills out much of our table of TENSES and ASPECTS:
[1015] When three students steal a quantity of uranium, Spiderman finds himself called upon to sort out a sinister web of international arms dealing. (Alton Herald)
[1016] His poor mother lacked her husband’s capacity for discipline, and found herself at the mercy of her headstrong son. (Mozart)
[1017] Controversial NSW magistrate Pat O’Shane will find herself on the other side of the bench on Friday when she faces court over an alleged assault. (the age)WWW
Progressive
[1018] Scrappy forward Eduardo Najera is finding himself in a similar role to which he found himself over four seasons with the Dallas Mavericks (San Jose Mercury)
[1019] Things had started to go down hill, he was finding himself sinking lower and lower; he was finding himself being tempted by old habits (greatestjournal)WWW
[1020] his courage always failed him and soon, he will be finding himself sitting alone on the steps of his block cursing at himself for being a coward. (luv storiez)WWW
[1021] Marine Corporal Joel David Klimkewicz has found himself sitting in a jail cell over new-found religious faith, willing to place his life on the line for his country but not willing to take up a gun to do it (Seriously Though)WWW
[1022] And then, much to her surprise, she had found herself dating him (Wilderness)WWW
[1023] If Janet Jackson stages a repeat on David Letterman, she will have found herself outstripped by singer Courtney Love, who repeatedly flashed [exposed herself to] the talk-show host Wednesday night (with her back to the camera) (ShowBIZ Data)WWW
Not surprisingly, I could locate no authentic examples of “will have been finding her/himself” or “will have been going to find her/himself”.
IV.231 The RECIPROCAL and REFLEXIVE may have been conventionally lumped together with ACTIVES, since the English PATTERN of SUBJECT – VERB – OBJECT is strongly absorbent or intrusive. But if we take the concept of TRANSITIVITY as seriously as it merits, those two are definitely “transitions” of their own kinds, and their distinct status becomes clear if, say, we compare them to PASSIVES:
[1024] You will help us to explain how pedestrians, cyclists and drivers can make sure they are seen by each other (Newham Junior Road Safety Officers)WWW
[1025] He struggled to find that which he longed for and was betrayed by himself. What a price he paid for his education! (redpac)WWW
These data are rare even on the Net, and the VERBS can carry much the ordinary senses that would also go with the matching ACTIVES (“they see each other”; “he betrayed himself”).
IV.231 In “grammar” classrooms, the term “intransitive” probably just means: neither “active nor passive”, which is not awesomely informative (cf. IV.213). I shall use instead the “functional” term MEDIAL TRANSITIVITY,[Note 14] where somebody or something participates by being the “medium”: living or dying, laughing or crying, coughing or sneezing, walking or running, growing old or staying young, being ugly or beautiful, being the boss or the janitor, and much else.
IV.232 As before, the most vigorous examples are easiest to envision. These are human bodily behaviours which other people could actually observe, viz.:
[1026] A woman driver desperate for a loo ran to a public toilet in Newmarket, Suffolk, only to find it shut -- and her car stolen when she returned. (Mirror)
[1027] During the first few nights he had found sleep almost impossible. The other men swore, sneezed, belched, hawked and spat. (Truth of Stone)
The five senses figure quite naturally too, often with implied ATTITUDES:
[1028] He looked ugly, ferocious and greedy. (Modigliani)
[1029] Her voice sounded harsh and croaky. (Only Two Can Share)
[1030] He smelled vibrantly clean and male Calypso’s Island)
[1031] My mother used to make custard and it tasted horrible, tasted eggy (conversation)BNC
[1032] Her cheeks, her stomach, her arms and her lower legs felt heavy, then light (Nudists)
IV.233 But, as will see in Part V, the MEDIAL has a great load and range of other “grammatical work” to manage. For example, it is needed to make CLAUSES for ATTRIBUTIONS and EVALUATIONS, such as we have seen for MODIFIERS, but with more FOCUS:
[1033] The dwelling was a tall, boxlike two-story house (Over Prairie Trails)
[1034] Margaret Thatcher is a war criminal who had her gov’t collude to kill and maim Irish Catholics (Kathy C in Irish Political News)
IV.234 Among the oddest from a purely linguistic standpoint, albeit socially indispensable, are the “weather” MEDIALS with a meaningless dummy “it” for SUBJECT and the whole process packed into the VERB: SIMPLE TENSES may indicate usual weather [1035-36], PROGRESSIVES the current weather, and SUCCESIVES the expected weather [1037-38]. More elaborate PATTERNS like [1039-42] adapt to their contexts.
[1035] In the windy sub-tropical climate of this part of New Zealand, it rains a great deal (Artist’s and Illustrator’s Magazine)
[1036] The Western sheep and cattle rangers sowed exotic grasses for their animals, built up the herds during the good years when it rained (Global Ecology)
[1037] It is raining in Tromsø. The sky is the colour of lead shot, with the Arctic Ocean dark and morose below it. I lean against the window of the bus and watch the raindrops spatter down (Arctic Odyssey)
[1038] It had been raining all day on Sleightholme Moor, and by the time I got to the inn I looked like a pink sponge in a cagoule.[Note 15] (Walking the Dales)
[1039] if the weather in the Alps goes balls up, it will have been raining in England for three weeks by then (boldering)WWW
[1040] “The clouds are black. I think it is going to rain tonight”, said Gregory. (African Farm)
[1041] An old farmers’ trick to know if it was going to rain was to look at the herd (NASIOC)
[1042] Chances are it will have rained on jackets, poured on one-piece oversuits, and winter gloves will have been given a chilly work out. (Crowtree Leathers)WWW
I do not find authentic occurrences of “will be going to rain” or “will be going to have rained”, no matter how predictable that soggy visitation may be in parts of Britain. The plausible reason is that FUTURE and SUCCESSIVE put together seem redundant (cf. IV.210) .
IV.235 The IMPERATIVE, though traditionally handled (and without particular respect) in school grammars as a CLASS of “sentence” -- “clause “ would be more accurate (cf. VI.20f) -- certainly qualifies as a mode of TRANSITIVITY: telling somebody directly to do or be something or else not to. Besides, its basic form stands out in requiring no SUBJECT. As would make sense, it prefers ACTIVES like [1043-44] far above PASSIVES like [1045-46], whilst MEDIALS like [1047-48] range in between.
[1043] Bring a thief, a drunkard, any outcast off the streets, but I beseech you not to bring Strickland here. (Moon and Sixpence)
[1044] “Don’t bring that girl in my house”, his mum said at first. Then she invited me to dinner (Falling for Love)
[1045] Life is worth the living. Be comforted that even now, with the end of ours slowly approaching, that we know this with a conviction that defeats the executioner! (Ethel and Julius Rosenberg)
[1046] “Don’t be alarmed, old man”, said French, taking him by the hand, “They are all quite sane” (Tale of Saskatchewan)
[1047] I’m 25, handsome guy. I’m looking for a guy with whom I can talk and talk and have some fun. Please be English and white, age 25 to 30. Hairy chest is welcomed (Stratford Gay Singles)WWW
[1048] “Don't be so English and polite!” Caroline said. “But I am English and polite!” (Reluctant Nomad)WWW
IV.236 Linguistically, the IMPERATIVE has at least three emphatic forms, apart the extra weight available from PROSODY for the basic form, such as commanding in a loud pitch or a slow pace (cf. VI.63).
[1049] “Take him! Take my son, Man-Killer!” she screamed. (The Trail Book)
[1050] Above the sounds of the outside commotion, arose the roar of the lieutenant. “Come on, yeh fools!” he bellowed. (Red Badge)
One of these emphatic forms is made explicit in the AFFIRMATIVE with a possibly stressed version of the AUXILIARY “do”, which I find in ACTIVES like [1051] and MEDIALS like [1052] more often than in PASSIVES like [1053].
[1051] “I wonder if he’d like to have me bring my magic lantern over some evening?” “Do bring it over, Carl. I can hardly wait to see it, and I’m sure it will please father!” (O Pioneers!)
[1052] “Do be reasonable for once. Why let your imagination run away with you?” I pleaded. (Oscar Wilde)
[1053] Do be advised by your hairdresser. If he/she confidently can explain how a certain style will enhance your best features, then listen. (Total Health and Fitness)
Since the NEGATIVE form of the AUXILIARY usually accompanies NEGATIVE COMMANDS anyway, stress can be placed on the AUXILIARY [1054-55]; or can gain from the PRO-NOUN “you” inserted, without stress [1056] or with it [1057] as deemed appropriate. The alternative of putting the VERB ahead of the NEGATIVE sounds archaic to my ear and a bit too weighty as well [1058-59].
[1054] Don’t touch autoloading guns! (Vanishing Wild Life)
[1055] The strain of keeping the peace was growing too much for her. “Oh, don’t quarrel with her, Richard, for my sake”, she begged (Australia Felix)
[1056] Don’t you believe the yarns your enthusiast tells of the squatter’s free-and-easy hospitality toward the swagman. (Such Is Life)
[1057] “Why, they killed him”, says Mr. Bucket, “on account of his having so much cheek. Don’t you get into the same position” (Bleak House)
[1058] Think not to hide your plots to overthrow the Roman power in your city (Historic Girls)
[1059] Hope not, seek not for common justice, rights, or privileges, while we are merchandise among men who gamble with our souls and bodies. (Slaveholder’s Daughter)
IV.237 As will be prominently shown in Part V, precisely the INFINITIVES, which earned slight respect in “traditional grammars”, are in fact the most sensitive and subtle indicators of significant linguistic, cognitive and social distinctions among the ACTIONS, EVENTS, or STATES mainly expressed by means of the sub-system of VERBS and VERB PHRASES.
IV.238 Such then are the central tasks of the system of VERBS in English. Admittedly, keeping track of NUMBER, PERSON, TENSE plus ASPECT, POLARITY, and TRANSITIVITY all at once may be no breezy walkover for ordinary users of English, whether native or foreign. We find here apt confirmation for the already stated principle that greater elaboration encourages greater variation (cf. IV.151, 201). As we saw, if only the VERB “be” insists on distinguishing SINGULAR and PLURAL in both PAST and PRESENT, then we need not marvel at the sort of data displayed in IV.201-02.
IV.239 In some areas, variations co-exist peacefully enough, such as the PAST TENSE and the PREDECESSIVE ASPECT, an unsurprising result of the alternatives in the creation of “standard” formations: some with ENDINGS, some with VOWEL shifts, some with both.[Note 16]
[1059] In his delirium Raskolnikov dreamt that the whole world was condemned to fall victim to some terrible and unknown pestilence coming upon Europe out of the depths of Asia. (Dostoevsky)
[1060] That night Jay dreamed in glorious technicolour with full Dolby stereo. (Jay Loves Lucy)
[1061] For all his apparent frailty, he dove into the crowd and fought his way towards the grille like a rugby forward. (Old Serpent Nile)
[1062] Trent dived belly flat into the protection of a bush sprouting from beside the concrete piling. (MacLean’s Golden Girl)
[1063] The candle in the saucer had burnt out, leaving a stiff white pool. (Hide and Seek)
[1064] The parliament building had burned, its roof had collapsed and a large heap of concrete lay around its doors. (Lebanon at War)
[1065] The river, which had been almost dry until now, had swollen greatly until it had submerged the melon beds. (Siege of Krishnapur)
[1066] While most reggae DJs rapidly rise in popularity only to sink within a year, Shabba’s following has swelled over the past four years to a point where the reggae market is too small to contain him (NME)
IV.240 But language guardians, whether in classrooms or on websites, are likely to rail against certain “incorrect” regional variations in the PAST, such as:
[1067] I knowed him ever since I come to these parts, and that weren’t yesterday (Mentioned in Despatches)WWW
[1068] Everywhere J.D. McManus goed, the segregationists goed in attempts to deprive him of an income. They knowed. (Civil Rights Years)WWW
[1069] As they went to the check out counter the manager ranned up to them (illest stories)WWW
[1070] Then when I told him to go to the Sells, he runned away and I runned after him (Super Sleuths of Cove)WWW
[1071] Mostly, we jes clumb up on the shed top, inna shade of a tree, and passed the time (Zeke Tails)WWW
[1072] He clumbed clean up in our big tree, an shooked a apple down fer me (James Whitcomb Riley)
[1073] One day she was going along and she seed a whole heap of people (Three Gold Nuts)WWW
[1074] I've got made hundreds of photographs and what can I say -- it's the best digital camera I've seened!!! (Digital Photography Review)WWW
[1075] Some jackass came ridin’ through here on a mule and ran right through the clothes line and rurnt the washin’. (Farmers II)WWW
[1076] He was teaching his boy Melvin how to play some baseball so he stolt this baseball bat off the churchhouse softball team. (Digging Postholes)WWW
[1077] Do you still have that pair of panties you stolded from me? I don't want them back. PS Don't forget -- it's front to back. (Missy)WWW
Forms like “knowed” may be supported by impulses to render the formation of PAST TENSES more consistent. This one seems here to stay for dern shore, just like when Woody Guthrie “thought ya knowed” about his “hard-travelin”; his home town, judging by his own superlative description back in [796] (IV.185), was a mighty smart of a place to be travelin’ away from.
IV.241 The campaign against “incorrect” VERBS is imbued with several ironies. Some forms condemned today were standard enough in the past, e.g.:
[1078] My enemys here have wrote to My Lord Grange (Charles Campbell in Scottish Politics, 1734)
[1079] Your friendship for me will make you pleased to hear such a good account of myself and my dear Edward, after all the troubles we have went through lately (Jane Austen in Sense and Sensibility, 1811)
Or forms reflect the still unsettled English of small children, e.g.:
[1080] The two little Adamses rushed up to him: “Oh Sir Michael! Granma is awfully hurted.” (Mrs Warren)
[1081] “My goat almost runned away!” lisped Freddie. “But I held on tight like a real fireman.” (Bobbsey)
IV.242 In regard to the ASPECTS with TENSES, the variation far exceeds what I had assumed before my corpus-scanning and web-surfing. Yet perhaps two major strategies can be sorted out. One strategy is to adapt “do” (for PRESENT) or “done” (for PAST) as a general AUXILIARY for an INFINITIVE [1081-83], a PROGRESSIVE [1084-85], or a PREDECESSIVE [1086-89]. The VERB form of choice is clearly “do”, often preceding of following some form of “be”.
[1081] That was the tarrible night at Silver Bush! To think it do be thirteen years ago! (Silver Bush)
[1082] he do see where I’m comin from, cuz he lookin at insurance quotes right now (No Ordinary Love)WWW
[1083] The frame hers whole machine she done be made of steel (Espresso Cappuccino)WWW
[1084] Cats always do be knowing what ye’re saying av thim. (Mistress Pa)
[1085] I do be minding the time he come home that summer and brought his monkey wid him. (same)
[1086] She don’t care no more ‘bout dem things since her Uncle Toby done die. She done been satisfied right whar she am. Now she done been settin’ up nights tryin’ to learn (Polly of the Circus)
[1087] The theater idea done gone and caught on like a bass to a smoke colored grub since they’s done popped up ever’where now. An’ them tourists, they’s done multiplied faster than jack rabbits (Voices of Our Youth)WWW
[1088] Well, I’m done got over you at last (Buddy Guy)
[1089] As Granny Clampett would say, “If they fell in there, they’s done deesolved by now!” (rinkworks)WWW
Granny Clampett of the Beverly Hillbillies may not be the most realistic informant -- some folks tell me she was modelled after Li’l Abner’s Mammy Yokum, who was seldom in doubt herself -- but most of the rest seemed as authentic, as far I was able to verify.
IV.243 Another strategy in variations seems to be a colourful expansion of the SUCCESSIVE, where the AUXILIARY “gonna” [1090-91] alternates, less frequently, with “a-gonna” [1092-93], “gone” [1094-95] and “gwine to” [1096-97]. Various formations are attested.
[1090] So take your heart and go to hell, cause I aint gonna cry again (Joe Cocker)
[1091] who will be gonna win when the oppositions aren’t taking part? (Elections Info)WWW
[1092] Going down the road feeling bad, Lord, Lord. And I aint a-gonna be treated this a-way (Doc Watson)
[1093] One cold night in December, them two fellers dee-cided we was a-gonna go on a snipe hunt (westernbooks)WWW
[1094] Remember I’m gone be fine (Monica)WWW
[1095] We want a prenup [pre-marriage property contract] cause when she leave yo ass she gone leave with half 18 years (Jamie Foxx)
[1096] “No’m, I sorry”, she answered, “but I gwine to see a sick lady now” (Carrie Nancy Fryer, in Folklore Interview)WWW
[1097] Just as they were gwine to wed, her father did say no (Ballad of Peter Gray)
One might speculate that “gwine” started by shifting the STRESS of “goin” onto the ENDING and suppressing the former STEM VOWEL. US-made dictionaries maintain that the form is limited to some regions of the Southeastern US; and at least one website huffily vows it is not authentic, having been “invented in literary circles” by “plantation dialect book writers”. Yet I have records of its attestation in the spoken regional Englishes of Jamaica, Trinidad, Belize, and Guyana, none of which regions has exactly swarmed with gringo “literary circles”.
IV.244 A different function is carried by the quasi-AUXILIARY “gone and” + VERB for something perhaps not entirely regular or prudent; the preferred VERB here is “done” [1098-99], but others occur [1100-04]. A similar effect can be suggested with the quasi-AUXILIARY “been and” + VERB as PAST PARTICIPLE [1101-02]. For doubled effect, you can have both [1103-04].
[1098] Well, he’s gone and done it! Prince Charles has announced that he’s marrying long term lurve interest Camilla Parker (Blogcritics)WWW
[1099] I done gone and ran me out o’ toilet paper. (Bewildering Stories)WWW
[1100] I ain’t gone ‘n’ give up on love, love ain’t gone ‘n’ give up on me (Stevie Ray Vaughn)WWW
[1101] She’s been and left before though, so here’s hoping she comes back. (Graphic Design)WWW
[1102] “you’ve been and done it now; you have!” “What’s the matter with your head?” asked Ralph. “Why, your man has been and broke it,” rejoined Squeers sulkily (Nickelby)
[1104] He knew how dangerous it was to let yourself get that attached to someone whom a single bullet could kill, and he’d been and gone and done it again (Wine of Dionysus)WWW
IV.245 Probably the most widespread variation in the “sub-system” of English VERBS is PRESENT PARTICIPLES without the final “‑g”, almost obligatory in some kinds of pop lyrics, viz:
[1105] Where d’ya go how long will it be ‘til I see my baby
This waitin’ here is drivin’ me crazy
Where d’ya go, when are ya commin’ back (Marty Robins)
[1106] Black Train commin’ on down the track
Long horn a blowin’ from his stack
OOO!! Chuggin’ on along
Like a harmonica wailin’ (Kit Kat)
Less widespread is the variation with a PREFIX written “a-” or “a’” on the front of the PARTICIPLE, most commonly PROGRESSIVE [1107-08], though I do find an occasional PREDECESSIVE [1109-10] or SUCCESSIVE [1111-12].
[1107] Don’t stand in the doorways or block up the halls, for the times, they are a-changin’ (Bob Dylan)
[1108] The letter brought the sad and harrowin’ intelligence that she was a-comin’ to make us a good long visit (Samantha among the Bretheren)
[1109] Pa Lovell had been a-doctoring on Harpeth Hills for a lifetime (Road to Providence)
[1110] You remember me as come one time to talk to you about the young lady as had been a-wisiting of you? (Bleak House)
[1111] there’s a new wedding upon the stocks, and they two are a-going to be married to rights. (Love for Love)
[1112] when I read what women have took a notion to turn out and do in the world, I get right skeered about what are a-going to happen to the babies (Road to Providence)
The PATTERN has appeared at times with the PREPOSITION “of” inserted:
[1113] Mrs. Snagsby, she’s always a-watching, and a-driving of me (Bleak House)
[1114] “Lad”, said Silver, “no one’s a-pressing of you. Take your bearings. None of us won’t hurry you, mate” (Treasure Island)
The PREFIX “a” seems to be a relic from Old English -- a reduced form of the versatile PREPOSITION “on”(on, in, into, toward, etc) -- that is retained to enhance rhythm and regional colouring.
IV.246 You can hardly have overlooked that a number of the variations I have cited in the VERB sub-system of English come from the discourse of folk or pop singers, as was done with the legendary Woody Guthrie in [796] (IV.185). If you object that the data lack creditable frequency, you can verify how often they are quoted on the Internet.
Their English was and is the English of the people they came from (not some “invention by literary circles”), and their frank and simple words reached millions of ears and minds -- and some might say, the hearts and lives too -- of generations.
IV.247 BELIEF concerns how strongly it is believed that a PROCESS can happen or that an AGENT or CAUSE can bring it about. In the middle range, POSSIBLE is whatever can readily happen in the usual order of things, e.g. [1115-16]; CAPABLE applies if the AGENT has the required capacity, e.g. [1117-18]; and PERMISSIBLE applies if they are authorized or empowered, e.g. [1119-20]. The enabling condition is often given with “if”, as in [1119].
[1115] A corroded ball can “pinhole” and start filling with water, which will increase the level of water in the cistern. (Book of Plumbing)
[1116] Recording contracts can be particularly complicated due to the different royalty rates. As a result, errors can occur in the processing of the royalty payments and the contract may be open to various interpretations. (Rock File)
[1117] By providing patients and their owners with organised puppy parties, I can save more lives than I will with drugs or scalpel. (Dogs Today)
[1118] You can't do the things I'm doing. I can flirt with death and come through. (James Dean)
[1119] You may make a claim if your cancellation falls within the terms of the insurance policy (Daily Telegraph)
[1120] Employees can transfer from one part of the organisation to another for career development. (Hotel Catering)
At the high end of the “probable”, CERTAIN applies if there is no doubt, independently of AGENCY or CAUSE, e.g. [1121-22]; NECESSARY applies if there is no alternative, e.g. [1123-24]; and OBLIGATORY applies if the ACTION is strictly required, e.g. [1125-26].
[1121] The most dynamic Green party in Europe is undoubtedly Die Grünen, which took 8.3 per cent of the vote in the 1987 West German federal elections and won 42 seats (Defending the World)
[1122] From the time of the Falklands War, it was certain that the Tories would win the next general election (People's Peace)
[1123] Lorne, beyond a certain threshold of exhaustion, falls unavoidably asleep (Ring of Fire)
[1124] The swiftness and depth of the economic shocks were key factors.Jordan simply had to come to terms with political and economic imbalances. (Independent)
[1125] Whether you are having a religious or a civil wedding, you must apply for a marriage schedule by giving notice to the local registrar (Wedding and Home)
[1126] The client must be told the hourly rate charged and the extent of the mark-up for skill, care and attention. (Personal Injury Lawyers)
At the low end of the “improbable”, IMPOSSIBLE applies if the PROCESS cannot happen, e.g. [1127-28]; INCAPABLE applies if the AGENT is unable, e.g. [1129-30]; and IMPERMISSIBLE applies if the ACTION is forbidden, e.g. [1131-32]. Here, the disenabling conditions are often given.
[1127] There are many over the
years who have commented that
cows can’t fly.
You see, cows do not fly because
they transport themselves via
mental telepathy. (Shaara
Pumpkin)WWW
[1128] One officer said that Russell had pulled a brick from out of the passage wall and hit him with it. It was impossible that anyone could have torn out a brick through the wallpaper. Even Geoff Capes could not have managed it. (Linford Christie)
[1129] I am enclosing my income tax return for the calendar year 1937, together with my check for $15,000. I am wholly unable to figure out the amount of the tax. (Franklin Delano Roosevelt)
[1130] I can’t look at the ceiling because I’m face down underneath something, and that, Piglet, is a very bad position for looking at ceilings (House at Pooh Corner)
[1131] They can’t arrest us for having a meeting, because we are the women of the community -- sewing. (Sewing Dissent in Chile)WWW
[1132] you can’t fight in here, this is the war room! (Doctor Strangelove)
In the middle we would have UNDECIDED or UNDECIDABLE:
[1133] There Hekenukumai would sit and commune with the waka taua Ngatokimatawhaorua [Note 17] and wonder if he would ever see a waka like that in the water. (Toi Maori Aotearoa)WWW
[1134] Someday we shall have new histories written, histories of world progress, showing the slow uprising, the development, the interservice of the nations (Charlotte Perkins Gilman)
IV.248 In discourse, BELIEF can be piquantly disputatious when people make quite different estimations of what can or cannot be done, e.g. [1135-36]. A common dispute is over the border between CAPABLE versus PERMISSIBLE, which some finicky speakers (mainly language guardians and schoolteachers) consider vital for politeness. Particularly in QUESTIONS, the MODAL “may” is deemed proper for PERMISSIBILITY [95, 104] and “can” for CAPABILITY [105]. But today, polite “may” is largely limited to a few formulas like QUESTIONS with “may I?” [1137], while “can” is preferred otherwise, as in [1138], where the speaker obviously wasn’t asking if he was CAPABLE of fetching a drink. The STATEMENT with PERMISSIBLE “may” is a bit marked, indicating a gesture of POWER, e.g., or superior to staff [1139] or employer to servant [1140].
[1135] “Mum can I have one more biscuit?” “No you can't, no.” “Oh yes I can.” “No.” (conversation)WWW
[1136] “The Nefud Desert cannot be crossed”. “I’ll cross it if you will”. (Lawrence of Arabia)
[1137] May I offer you a glass of wine? Or do you prefer the citron pressé? (Over the Edge)
[1138] “Can I offer you a drink?” His eyes held hers with a kind of taunting amusement. (Conspiracy of Love)
[1139] Then she made an attempt to put Lucy in her place by reminding her that she was merely a member of the staff. “You may go, Miss Telford”, she said imperiously. (Wilder's Wilderness)
[1140] “You are not getting shot of your duties so readily.You may take Hector out for his run now.” “As you wish, ma'am”. (Hidden Flame)
Conversely, used for CAPABILITY it can casually indicate the SOLIDARITY of shared knowledge even when this cannot be definitely assumed [1141-42].
[1141] Armagnac, as you may know, is France's oldest brandy, and the connoisseurs' favourite. (Photography)
[1142] It has been said that Prince, who writes songs for anyone from Sheena Easton to The Bangles, has written a song specifically for Lindy Layton called Do Me Baby. You may in fact remember that it appeared on one of his early LPs. (The Face)
In the discourse of advertising, the IMPERATIVE commands the consumer to perform socially AMELIORATIVE ACTIONS and radiates unctious CERTAINTY that they can really be done (cf. V.29)
[1143] Learn how to be a truly effective leader with Mind Tools 24 hour expert leadership system. (Mind Tools)WWW
[1144] Find an exciting new job in a vast range of fields with help from ACD Recruitment (Ultimate Directory)WWW
So intense is the optimism that you can become an "expert leader" in only "24 hours"; and an have just one "new job in a vast range of fields all at once.
Notes to Part IV, NUMBER FIVE
12. The term has been expansively forwarded by M.A.K. Halliday and his colleagues in “systemic functional linguistics”.
13. “Polyamorous” refers to the practice of having a consensual, loving relationship that involves more than two people. […] Polyamorous relationships are open and take place with the knowledge and consent of everyone involved. (Talking Points from Channel 4).WWW
14. See Note 11.
15. A ‘light-weight, knee-length anorak popular with bearded prannies [fools] who wear ethnic shoes, get off on Olde English folk music and have girlfriends called Ros who run encounter groups where you can find your true self and be at one with the cosmos” (Book of Ultimate Truths).
16. The CGEL lists some seven classes of “irregular verbs” by their formation (104-120); just the list of them covers over five pages.
17. The name of a famous ceremonial “canoe of a war party” (“waka taua” in Maori) -- the world’s longest fishing canoe (35 metres), requiring some 76 paddlers to navigate safely -- reconstructed for the 1940 centennial of the Treaty of Waitangi and intended to represent the sailing craft that brought the Maori people from Eastern Polynesia to New Zealand some time between AD 740 and 1350 -- indeed the version retooled with “adze” and “chisel” (as the name signifies) of the very boat of Kupe, the legendary first Maori chief to make the dangerous journey, battling with, and finally defeating the giant octopus Te Wheke Muturangi. See the entry “Ideas of Maori origins” in the online Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Hekenukumai Busby was the master builder who created the Te Aurere (meaning the “flying wake” of the canoe) in 1992, still used on ceremonial and educational occasions, having visited Hawai'i, French Polynesia, the Cook Islands, New Caledonia, and Norfolk Island. (I am indebted to Hekenukumai for these details.)
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