This third and final chunk of PART FIVE was mysteriously truncated, and has now been restored with my apologies.
V.58 REPRESENTIVE PROCESSES are concerned not with EVENTS and ACTIONS but with STATES and CIRCUMSTANCES. The PROTOTYPE CLAUSE CORE has REPRESENTER as SUBJECT and REPRESENTATION as a VERB PHRASE that typically includes a COMPLEMENT or an ADVERBIAL. The TRANSITIVITY is fundamentally MEDIAL: you are the “medium” of whatever you represent.
V.59 EXISTENTIAL PROCESSES are the simplest, the CLAUSE CORE only expressing some person or thing in the role of EXISTENT. The PROTOTYPE has the EXISTENTIAL DUMMY “there” plus a form of the VERB “be” (nearly always SIMPLE rather than PREDECESSIVE or PROGRESSIVE) in the PRESENT [420] or PAST [421]. Less PROTOTYPICAL VERBS with EXISTENTIAL “there” include “exist” itself [422] and, particularly in stories, “live” in the PAST [423].
[420] No race possesses the monopoly of beauty, intelligence, force, and there is room for all of us at the rendezvous of victory (Aimé Césaire) [Note 2]
[421] There is a garden in her face where roses and white lilies grow (Thomas Campion)
[authentic fashion show image]
[422] it was suggested, by Leverrier in France and by Adams in England , that there existed a previously undetected planet in the vicinity of Uranus. (Thing Called Science)
[423] Once upon a time, there lived a king whose heart was heavy. (Cameron Dokey)WWW
[Portrait in heart: Ann Boleyn]
The ITEM “there” is an anomaly in the GRAMMAR of English WORD-CLASSES. It is distinct from the ADVERB “there” meaning “at that place”, as in [424]. In casual style, it acts like a SINGULAR PRO-NOUN SUBJECT in the CONTRACTION “there’s”, whether the technical SUBJECT is SINGULAR [425] or PLURAL [426]. I found just a few PLURALS when the VERB was clearly separated [427], or with a series of SINGULAR SUBJECTS [428].
[424] There was the stile before me — the very fields through which I had hurried. (Eyre)
[425] Nobody feels like a real writer deep down inside, just like nobody feels wealthy. There’s an endless supply of people wealthier than you, right? (Wil McCarthy)
[426] There’s loads of shops with their lights on and traffic and people (Bayswater)
[427] There isn’t many old parish’ners like her, I doubt. (Mil on the Floss)
[428] There is hospitality, and cordiality and good fellowship (Mountain Woman)
Perhaps “there” is best described as a unique EXISTENTIAL DUMMY merely filling the SUBJECT position before EXISTENTIAL “be”.
V.60 In CIRCUMSTANTIAL PROCESSES, CIRCUMSTANCES are expressed in CLAUSE CORES rather than in the ADVERBIALS where they mainly go. One PROTOTYPE called the CLEFT is divided (“cleft”) between two CLAUSES to put FOCUS on the CIRCUMSTANCE (V.xxx). In the INDEPENDENT CLAUSE, the SUBJECT is the CIRCUMSTANTIAL DUMMY PRO-NOUN “it” and the VERB is “be” in the SIMPLE PRESENT or PAST, plus SUBJECT COMPLEMENTS as CIRCUMSTANCES of TIME or PLACE; the DEPENDENT CLAUSE tells what was or happened then or there.
[429] It was 8:00 am when James arrived at Competition Motors and met with his mechanic Rolf Wutherich, who was making last minute adjustments on the Spyder. (The Man & the Myth)WWW
[430] It was at the door of the station that Gezici encountered the officer who had driven his car into his sister's. He was then taken alone into a back room of the station and tortured for five hours. (Kurdish Media)WWW
COMMANDS like [431-32] are not too frequent, except being “on time”, or “not late” [433-34].
[431] Be at the corral, with the buggy, at three. (Roaring Camp)
[432] Don’t be at home or away without quick help! (Safety Kit)WWW
[433] Just be on time, hit the lines and say the marks! ( Hollywood Rogues)
[434] Now run along and don’t be late tomorrow. (Where There’s Life)
My data show minimal DENIALS of INTENTION [435-36] and CONTROL [437-38].
[435] Martin sat perched on the edge of a gilt-framed armchair, looking as though he did not quite mean to be there. (Jerusalem
[436] You didna mean to be late, […] but your aunt’s been worrited to-day. (Adam Bede)
[437] Amy can’t help being there. She hasn’t anywhere else to go. (English Crime)
[438] I piled two disco-bleared daughters into the car and drove [to] Barkway — a village which can’t help being close to Royston (Fishkeeping)
V.61 A peculiar LEXICOGRAMMAR applies to CIRCUMSTANCES of WEATHER, whose PROTOTYPES “being cold” and “being hot” also prefer SIMPLE VERBS [439-40], whereas the PROTOTYPES of “raining” and “snowing” prefer the PROGRESSIVE [441-42]; the SIMPLE indicates a predominant WEATHER condition [443-44]. Even though the SUBJECT as the CIRCUMSTANTIAL DUMMY “it” cannot be an AGENT, an apparent DIRECT OBJECT can occur [445-46].
[439] it was bitterly cold as I covered my bagpipes and rubbed my frozen fingers (Invasion)
[440] The air was full of mosquitoes. It was very hot and sticky (Pacific)
[441] It is raining heavily. We are without tents, and for two nights I have lain buttoned up in my overcoat. (General Robert E. Lee)
[442] it was snowing, it was like a fairy tale, clean and soft (Gate-Crashing)
[443] The region’s intense greenness is the giveaway that it often rains. (Best)
[444] I will come in after breakfast every day […] even when it snows (Legacy of Love)
[445] The problem was, it was raining sleet outside. (Rain)
[446] It was snowing a blizzard, and we got lost (End of the Morning)
With no AGENT, COMMANDS like [447-48] sound odd indeed; the handful for “not raining” or “snowing” are facetious [449-50]. I find no DENIALS of INTENTION or CONTROL like [451].
[447] *Hang on, don’t be midnight already!
[448] *Now, don’t be Monday morning yet, don’t! I can’t handle it yet!
[449] Don’t Rain on My Parade (Funny Girl)
[450] Let it Sun, Let it Rain, Just Don’t Snow (Bad Samaritan)WWW
[451] *It didn’t mean to rain on your birthday, but the humidity was so intense it couldn’t help but rain.
V.62 IDENTIFICATION is a PROCESS that assigns an IDENTITY, frequently a familial, social, or institutional role. The PROTOTYPE CLAUSE has the IDENTIFIED as SUBJECT, “be” as VERB, and IDENTITY as SUBJECT COMPLEMENT.
[452] May I present to you a member of my wife’s family. He is my wife’s brother. ( Saigon)
[453] Mischa is my father’s oldest friend (Relic)
[454] Gene Hackman is the boss of the town and kills anyone who says otherwise. (The Film Review)WWW
[455] Winston Churchill was the President of the Board of Trade (Ideas in Action)
DISPOSITIVE or ERGATIVE IDENTIFICATION is for “naming” or “electing” somebody into a role, which is expressed by just a few VERBS. The ACTIVE has IDENTIFIER as SUBJECT, IDENTIFIED as OBJECT, and IDENTITY as OBJECT COMPLEMENT [456-57]; the PASSIVE has the IDENTIFIED as SUBJECT [458-59].
[456] If I’d been a ranch, they would have named me the Bar-Nothing. (Rita Hayworth in Gilda)
[457] Phi Kappa Phi elected her President in 1921. (Helen Bishop Thompson)www
[458] Paris Hilton was named Worst Supporting Actress and Rob Schneider was named Worst Actor (2006 Raziie Award)WWW
[459] Maynard Jackson Jr. was elected the first black mayor of Atlanta in 1973. (USA Today)www
V.63 COMMANDS are highly selective, and would be plausible only for an IDENTITY which can be deliberately assumed or assigned, as in [460-62] but not, say, in [452a-453a].
[460] Please be my wife, be one with me (Dru Hill)WWW
[461] Oh Rose, please, please be my friend. Please take the ring, please! (Twist of Fate)
[462] I have bigger, tiara-holding hair and red lipliner always at the ready. Please elect me your 1999-2000 Homecoming Queen. (Courtney Beebe in the [University of] Montana Kaimin)www
[452a] *Kindly be my wife’s brother for tonight. Her real brother is a scruffy berk we can’t allow at family reunions.
[453a] *Please, Misha, be my father’s oldest friend! His mind’s gone tatty and thinks you are.
I can find no DENIALS of INTENTION like [460a] or of CONTROL like [453b].
[460a] *She didn’t mean to be my wife, but she married me by mistake in a dim and overcrowded chapel.
[453b] *Misha couldn’t help being my father’s oldest friend because he was in fact his only friend.
V.64 ATTRIBUTION is for REPRESENTING some inherent trait or property. The PROTOTYPE CLAUSE has ATTRIBUTED as SUBJECT, “be” as VERB, and ATTRIBUTE as SUBJECT COMPLEMENT [463-66].
[463] Aldebrand is very tall and thin, but immensely strong and fit (Warhammer Armies)BNC
[464] She was middle-aged, thin as a bean-pole, with a mouth puckered up with spite. (Topaz)
[465] Mrs Binks was very fat and a filthy dress hung shapelessly on her. (Vets Might Fly)
[466] His face was white, his skin scrofulous, his teeth decaying. (Suburbia)
ATTRIBUTES make strange COMMANDS, either AFFIRMATIVE [467] or NEGATIVE [468]. I find no DENIALS of INTENTION like [467a]. DENIAL of CONTROL seems a bit more plausible [469].
[467] Seattle photographer seeks models 18-35. Please be slender (Models)WWW
[468] First off don’t be fat or short. I sadly am both. (Tidus)WWW
[463b] *Aldebrand didn’t mean to be very tall and thin, but his DNA was unrelenting.
[469] If we had such a custom in Japan , we couldn’t help being fat. ( New Zealand )WWW
V.65 EVALUATION is for REPRESENTING a VALUE according to the ATTITUDE of the speaker. The PROTOTYPE CLAUSE has the EVALUATED as SUBJECT, “be” as VERB, and the VALUE as SUBJECT COMPLEMENT for AMELIORATIVE [470-71] or PEJORATIVE [472-73]. Children are doubtless well sensitised to the difference by their elders [474].
[470] he was always so charming to me — so nice. (Over the Edge)
[471 people are extremely kind and extremely generous. (Save the Children)BNC
[472] Lawson was rude and arrogant — exactly what a chancellor should be. (Economist)
[473] Rumsfeld is a swaggering bag of mendacious arrogance, a duplicitous chickenhawk, yellow-bellied bully-boy and tinker-toy Napoleon. (Greg Palast)
]
474] Mum had told him that whenever he was good she liked him but that when he was bad, she didn’t. (Mr Tom)
COMMANDS are mostly AFFIRMATIVE for AMELIORATIVE [475, 477, 479] and NEGATIVE for PEJORATIVE [476, 478, 480-78]:
[475] Always be polite — even if the customer isn’t. (Retailing)
[476] “Don’t be rude, dear”, said his mother placidly. (Room with a View)
[477] “Be reasonable!” pleaded Geoffrey. “Men aren’t saints!” (Damsel)
[478 Don’t be unreasonable about the service and rant and rave. (Canoe Travel) WWW
[479] Be wise, for wisdom availed Daniel in the den of lions (Ivanhoe)
[[480] Don’t Be Stupid, You Know I Love You (Shania Twain)
INTENTION is naturally denied for the PEJORATIVE VALUES [481-82]. I found just a few DENIALS of CONTROL [483-84].
[481] Liverpool striker Djibril Cisse has apologised for his controversial behaviour after scoring his side's third goal from the spot at Newcastle . “I didn't mean to be rude” (Daily Mail)
[482] I’m sorry master, I didn’t mean to be stupid. (Feathered Circle)WWW
[483] Orcs couldn't help being rude, crude and crusty, but this one seemed to be making it his personal goal in life to persecute her. (Fanstory)WWW
[484] Stupidity is not a sin, the victim can’t help being stupid. (Adventurers)WWW
V.66 POSSESSION is a fuzzy PROCESS, vacillating among IDENTITY or ATTRIBUTE (what is said to be yours), DISPOSITION (what you can do with it), COGNITION (what you believe is yours), and ASPIRATION (what you want to have). The PROTOTYPE CLAUSE with POSSESSOR as SUBJECT, “have” as VERB PHRASE and POSSESSED as OBJECT, is for a straightforward relation of “having tangible property” [485-86]. VERBS like “own” and “possess” are less common, though more consistent for this relation [487-88].
[485] I have a Knitmaster machine. (Machine Knitting Monthly)
[486] When the top three hundred of the richest people on Earth have wealth equal to the bottom three billion people on Earth, extreme affluence is built on the back of extreme poverty. (Ralph Nader, Crashing the Party)
[487] Republican gubernatorial candidate William E. Simon Jr. owns stock in a natural gas company accused of taking advantage of California. ( LA Times )
[488] Hades possessed a magic helmet which made him invisible. (Myths, Gods and Fantasy)
V.67 By form at least, the TRANSITIVITY of POSSESSION appears ACTIVE, though rarely counting as an ACTION; and some VERBS have corresponding PASSIVES, such as “own” (common) [489] and “possess” (uncommon) [490], but apparently not “have” [491] in that sense; ‘be had” means “be cheated” [491]. However, a MEDIAL version is common with POSSESSED as SUBJECT, “be” as VERB, and a POSSESSIVE as SUBJECT COMPLEMENT [492].
[489] The vacant land was owned by Liverpool City Council (Town and Country)
[490] In the seventeenth century, the church was possessed by Daniel Disney (East Lindsey)
[485] *A Knitmaster machine is had by me.
[491] I've been had....My stupid Internet provider just decided this week to cut our bandwith in half without actually telling anyone about it. (Tomas Restropo)WWW
[492] The pictures were Douglas ’s and the furniture was mine (Art Newspaper)
V.68 DISPOSITIVE POSSESSION has the important PROTOTYPES “giving”, “getting”, and “taking”. GIVING is widespread in the ACTIVE with GIVER as SUBJECT, GIVING as VERB, RECEIVER as INDIRECT OBJECT, and GIVEN as DIRECT OBJECT [493]. The PASSIVE may have the GIVEN as SUBJECT with the GIVER formatted in an ADVERBIAL of AGENT [494]; or else or the RECEIVER as SUBJECT, which leaves the GIVEN as a NOUN PHRASE whose role in the CLAUSE CORE is ambiguous [495] — perhaps a relic of an older SUBJECT when the present-day SUBJECT was a FRONTED INDIRECT OBJECT, as in Biblical style [496].
[493] King Frederick then gave her a palace of her own. ( Stonehenge to Stonewall)WWW
[494] This bell was given to the Dean of St. Paul’s by William III. (Big Ben)WWW
[495] she was given a crystal vase and luggage as a leaving present. (Glenpatrick News)
[496] There came out of the smoke locusts upon the earth: and unto them was given power (Revelation 9:3)
GETTING principally occurs with the GETTER as SUBJECT and the GOTTEN as OBJECT [497-98]. Yet the VERB “get” also serves for GIVING with the GIVER as SUBJECT and the GETTER as INDIRECT OBJECT, implying that the GIVEN as DIRECT OBJECT first had to be secured by the GIVER [499-500].
[497] The current monarch, Queen Elizabeth, gets money in four ways. (CBBC News)
[498] Brian Stokes Mitchell got a trophy for Best Musical Actor in the revival "Kiss Me Kate" (CNN Today)
[499] I did not want to scare her off so on Valentines Day I got her a basket of spring daisies, instead of roses. (Fazed)WWW
[500] My parents, knowing I was going on another trip this summer, got me a beautiful picture book called The Magic & Mystery of Ireland (Fodor’s)WWW
-
TAKING has as PROTOTYPE the TAKER and SUBJECT, TAKING as VERB, and the TAKEN as DIRECT OBJECT, possibly with the GIVER in an ADVERBIAL with “from” [501].
[501] Birmingham City took the money from Gary Newbon on Sunday but could not take the points from Doncaster Belles’. Newbon will have to fork out £583 after Birmingham rose to his challenge and pulled in a crowd of over 500 (FA Women’s News)
V.69 “Selling” has the PROTOTYPE of SELLER as SUBJECT, SELLING as VERB, and SOLD as DIRECT OBJECT; if specified, the BUYER is INDIRECT OBJECT [502], OR the BUYER can appear in an ADVERBIAL INDIRECT OBJECT [503]. “Buying” has the PROTOTYPE of BUYER as SUBJECT, BUYING as VERB, and BOUGHT as DIRECT OBJECT, and optionally a GETTER as INDIRECT OBJECT [504] and a PRICE again in a “for” ADVERBIAL [505]. Like GIVING, both “selling” and “buying” have various options in the PASSIVE for the SUBJECT: the SOLD [506], the BOUGHT [507], or, rarely, the GETTER [508-509], this last PATTERN also leaving an ambiguous NOUN PHRASE for the SOLD or the BOUGHT.
[502] Kenelm had then sold my father a pair of eighteenth-century cupboards. (Authors)
[503] The defendant, an Austrian seller of imported Italian cars, sold a Lamborghini Countach to the plaintiff, a Swiss buyer. (Austrian Oberster Gerichtshof)
[504] A niece of Miss Vine’s bought her a new budgerigar. (Dynmouth)
[505] Vicki bought a birthday card for nanny (conversation)BNC
[506] A converted broom cupboard opposite Harrods was sold for £36,500. (Best)
[Background: Mohammed al-Fayed]
[507] A new tractor was bought in 1957, the first for 30 years (Henley Golf Club)BNC
+
[Background: Tiger Woods]
[508] A 14 year old was sold a set of 5 knives with blades ranging from 3 to 8 inches . ( Cornwall County Council)
[509] A 12-year old boy has spent more than £1,500 transforming his bedroom into a nightclub with laser lights, CD decks, sirens and even a dry ice smoke machine. Aaron's wanted to be a DJ ever since he was bought a disco ball for Christman two years ago. (CBBC).
V.70 The POSSESSIVE of “having” is rare in COMMANDS like [510-11]; for MEDIAL POSSESSIVE, I only find the quaint supplication “be mine!” [512]. The ACTIVE IMPERATIVE “have” usually occurs for other PROCESSES, such as DISPOSITIVE [513], ENACTIVE [514], and PERCEPTIVE [515]. But DISPOSITIVE POSSESSIVES are naturally popular in COMMANDS, such as [516-19].
[510] Imagine. . .Have all the money you need! (MATCU)WWW
[511] If killing monsters isn't fun then don't have it in your game (Deeply Random Thoughts)
[512] I never felt love’s holy thrill till I saw thee! Be mine! (Artemus Ward)
[513] “You didn't eat your potatoes”, she chides, kindly. “Have some jam roly poly.” (Guardian)
[514] Go to the rose gardens, have a walk along the sea front (Trade Union Congress)www
[515] Now have a look at these shots of Space Invaders: Invasion Day, a game that Bigben Interactive published (Eurogamer)WWW
.
[516] Master tactician Zdeneck Zeman has left the door open for a move back to his former club AS Roma. […] “So give the man some fast defenders!” (soccer 24/7)WWW
["Fast!!]
[517] Get legal verifiable accredited degrees. No study, no exams. (Belford “University")WWW
[518] I see where their marketing campaign is going now. Sell them a MINI, then in a year, try to get them to trade in for a BMW (Mini Cooper)WWW
[519] Buying a woman underwear is a big minefield. If you aren't really sure of her taste, then buy her a voucher for a classy knicker shop
I found only one occurrence each of POSSESSION in a DENIAL OF INTENTION [520] and a DENIAL OF CONTROL [521]. DISPOSITIVE POSSESSION was more frequent [522-23].
[520] I’m just happy to be rid of a stock that I didn’t mean to own in the first place. (It was a result of a spinoff.) (Joe Williams)www
[521] I was put in possession of a gentleman’s house in this parish here, that everybody would suppose couldn’t help having money if he tried. (Sketches by Boz)
[523] Parents in rural areas couldn’t help selling their cattle to afford the tuition fee (Argus)www
[522] When the French put shares up for sale the English couldn’t help buying them and soon had the majority in the Suez Canal (Imperialism in Africa)www
V.71 In general, the REPRESENTATIVE PROCESSES are hardly used in ERGATIVES like “making be”. All I found was one facetious CIRCUMSTANCE of WEATHER [524], plus a handful of VALUES [525-26].
[524] she’d have said he’d sabotaged her jeep and made it rain this way, just so he could enjoy some amusement at her expense! ( Garden of Desire
[525] All I want for Christmas is a special someone. Make him be smart, funny, caring, adventurous, romantic, successful, and stable. (Dear Santa)WWW
[526] Don’t make her be stupid, and hit ya upside da head with a blimp. (Xanga)WWW
[Kevin Federline and Britney Spears]
V.72 EXPRESSIVE PROCESSES serve to “express” your INNER STATES and EVENTS, guided by the linguistic, cognitive, and social norms of the relevant culture. The PROTOTYPE CLAUSE CORE in the ACTIVE has EXPRESSER as SUBJECT, EXPRESSION as VERB PHRASE, and EXPRESSED as DIRECT OBJECT [527-28]. The PASSIVE has EXPRESSION as SUBJECT and EXPRESSER in an ADVERBIAL of AGENT [529-30].
[527] The painter Gwen John expressed her desire for “a more interior life”, withdrawing to her attic room to work in a range of colour and tones which suggest melancholy or quietude ( Whitworth Art Gallery)
[528] The Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir expressed his shock at the incident. (Independent )
[529] the view was expressed by some that the training of recruits was premature. (Nelson Mandela)
[in Robben Island Prison]
[530] No sympathy was expressed by male members of the group as to the comparative hardness of the women’s lives (Psychic and Political Dimensions)
V.73 In EMOTIVE PROCESSES, the EXPRESSION consists of a movement (an “exit-motion”, so to speak) from an inner STATE or EVENT of the body or mind toward an outer display of face, gesture, or tone of voice (V.5), which may entail INTENTION or CONTROL, or may not. Several CLAUSE CORES might qualify as PROTOTYPES. One has the EMOTER as MEDIUM for the SUBJECT, the MEDIAL “be” as VERB, and the EMOTION as an ADJECTIVE SUBJECT COMPLEMENT [531-32]; another has the MEDIAL “feel” for the VERB [533-34]. Or again, a PAST PARTICIPLE with a PATTERN like the PASSIVE links up to “be” [535-36]. As these data indicate, EMOTIVES contrast clearly between AMELIORATIVE (like “happy”) and PEJORATIVE (like “sad”), the latter being more common in my data, especially among the PARTICIPLES.
[531] Yobo insists he is happy at Everton and manager David Moyes revealed he will be offered a new deal (BBC Sport)WWW
[532] Sir Ian McKellen who played the wizard Gandalf in the smash hit 'Lord of the Rings' movies said on Wednesday he is sad director Peter Jackson may not make a film based on author J R R Tolkien's The Hobbit (Yahoo News)WWW
[533] On Tuesday, for the first time in her 26-year life, Jennifer Capriati took her own personal pictures. She said she felt happy again (Telegraph)
[534] A stern Michael Schumacher told reporters on Saturday that he felt “sad” that he spent the decisive phase of his last ever qualifying session in the pits. (Yahoo Sport)WWW
[535] Aloysia had even more potential talent. Mozart was enraptured. (Mozart)
[536] I was saddened and grieved and distressed by the fact that everybody turned against him at the end. (Peter Grimes)
Less common in my data is the ACTIVE option of an EMOTION as a NOUN OBJECT of “feel” [537-38]; and still less the corresponding PASSIVE [539-40]. Sometimes the OBJECT is a BODILY EVENT suggesting but not precisely specifying an EMOTION (yes, Mills & Boon once again) [541-42].
[537] We feel happiness when we pray to Allah (Prof. Adel Sadeq of ’Ain Shams University )www
[538] Russians feel sadness and pride as Mir splashes down (Associated Press)www
[539] A general air of happiness was felt throughout the entire ship (Small Step)www
[540] The sadness was felt by all people in the village. Their beloved Chief has passed in the night. (Native American Story)WWW
[541] His gaze swept boldly over her and she felt a rush of warmth right through her veins. (Lover’s Charade)
[542] she felt an explosion of fire sweep through her entire body ( Castle of Desire )
V.74 ERGATIVE EMOTIONS of “making feel” are readily found, sometimes with a human AGENT [543-45] and sometimes with a CAUSE [546-47] — AMELIORATIVE, PEJORATIVE, or a bit of both. Where the MODIFIER clearly indicates the EMOTION, the VERB “feel” can be omitted [545].
[543] But then I heard you play and you made me feel happy, and I haven't felt happy for months. (What KT did next)WWW
[544] James Blunt in “You're Beautiful” made me feel horrible because it made me think about the boy that loves me…I love him too but my best friend wants him…life's so complicated!!! (Wot song have u listend to today)WWW
[545] j-lo went out wiv ben he made her happy and wat makes jen happy should make u as a fan (Jennifer Lopez Forums)WWW
[546] “I really enjoyed doing Bollywood/Hollywood”, she explained. The film made her feel happy (Mehta got death threats)WWW
[547] Puppy love isn’t such a silly thing. It’s made her sad and lonely (Donna Grayson)WWW
In the woolly Mills and Boon world of at first assertive women irresistibly attracted to muscular males, EMOTIONS lend the vital organs an anatomically unimaginable mobility:
[548] His voice held a caressing note which flipped her heart over in her chest. (Calypso’s Island)
[549] As he strode towards her, she felt her heartbeat do a funny little dance. ( Battle for Love)
[550] The kiss […] was a sensual onslaught that made her brain whirl. (Healing Fire)
[551] her stomach leapt inside her, remembering that dance (Conspiracy of Love)
Such perturbations, if they could be observed and recorded by body scans, would be a sensation for medical science.
V.75 Predictably, COMMANDS are AFFIRMATIVE for AMELIORATIVE EMOTIONS [552] and NEGATIVE for PEJORATIVE ones [553].
[552] Don't be so negative about the world cup. England are going to win it so be happy about it. (James Message Board)WWW
[553] Don’t be unhappy, that’s a beautiful country you live in. After all you get to visit Mecca and Medina all the time, the two most beautiful things on planet Earth (SuperHero)WWW
I found few examples of DENIALS for INTENTION like [554], but many for CONTROL like [555-56].
[554] I didn’t mean to sound sad. I didn’t mean to be sad. (Sweet Misery)WWW
[555] Erlinda Brul, a laundry woman who has evacuated to the Albay Central School, could not help feeling happy after the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology reported the possibility of lowering the alert level of Mayon volcano. “Thank God! we will be able to go home and live normal lives again”. (Mayon’s Fury)WWW
[556] I just saw the Three Stooges biographical movie on AMC today! I could not help feeling sad on how poorly they were treated (Three Stooges)WWW
V.76 COMMUNICATIVE PROCESSES deploy TEXTS in the widest sense to display and impart significance. One PROTOTYPE CLAUSE CORE has COMMUNICATOR as SUBJECT, COMMUNICATION as the VERB of “saying”, and a NOUN PHRASE for the COMMUNICATED TEXT as the DIRECT OBJECT [700]. But the preferred PROTOTYPE has the COMMUNICATED TEXT as a FRAMED CLAUSE, i.e., a DEPENDENT CLAUSE telling what was communicated, whilst the INDEPENDENT FRAMING CLAUSE of “saying” may come before [557-58] but commonly after [559-60]. A NOUN for the COMMUNICATOR goes after the “saying” [559] more than before [560].
[557] John Major said a lot of silly things. (New Statesman)
[558] Irish singer Sinead O'Connor said Thursday she plans to teach religion after quitting the music business this July. (CNN)
[559] “You’d better get on with that index”, said the high official (Mayfair)
[560] “Appearances are against me, Mr Sheridan”, the beautiful intruder said. (Certain Hour)
A PRO-NOUN goes before [561] more than after [562].[Note 3] The frequencies for these FRAMES at the end of the sentence are strikingly uneven in my corpora. In the BNC: “said she.” at 6 versus “she said.” at 4876; and “said he.” at 45 versus “he said.” at 9673. In the EPC: “said she.” at 508 versus “she said.” at 2330; and “said he.” at 1079 versus “he said.” at 4111. The less common choices tend to encourage a RISING PITCH and a WEAK STRESS on the PRO-NOUN, which may seem to distract. (See Part VI on these terms.)
[561] Phair no longer suffers from extreme stage fright, which in the past led to spotty performances and kept her from extensive touring. “I just got over it,” she said. (Sesquatch)WWW
[562] But when he told his aunt what he had seen, she grinned all over her broad features. “I never did trust that new Mayor Mutton nor none of his creatures neither”, said she. (Captain Pugwash and the Huge Reward)
The PROTOTYPE of “telling” is more likely to have an apparent NOUN OBJECT [563], and, when used as a FRAME, prefers that the RECEIVER be specified [564].
[563] she told a vivid tale implicating several people in the murders. (New Scientist)
[564] C3PO told R2D2 "Well, I'm not going that way" (Marysia) WWW
V.77 A DIRECT TEXT has the actual wording set off from the FRAME by QUOTATION MARKS [56465]. An INDIRECT TEXT, with no MARKS, fits the wording (such as TENSE and PERSON) to the FRAME [564a-65a]. Converting between DIRECT and INDIRECT TEXT excludes DIRECT TEXTS that follow the ongoing interaction among speakers, as in [566-67] versus [566a-67a] (cf. IV.254; V.80).
[564] C3PO told R2D2 that he was not going that way" (Marysia) WWW
[565] My Lord Bristoll told the King “I will impeach the Chancellor of High Treason”.
[565a] My Lord Bristoll told the King that he will impeach the Chancellor [Sir Anthony Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury] of High Treason: (Samuel Pepys)
[566] “My God”, he told her, “you look awful”. (Kenneth Williams)
[566a] *He told her that, his God, she looked awful.
[567] “Ah!” snarled the Russian. “You see, I was right!” (Adversary)
[567a] *The Russian snarled that ah, she saw, he was right.
Also blocked from conversion to INDIRECT are TEXTS where the FRAMING VERB is a bodily ENACTMENT involving the mouth [568-59] versus [568
[568] “It was kind of you to walk me
[568a] *She smiled that it was kind of him to walk her home.
[569] He tried, and couldn’t open the door either. “That’s odd”, he frowned. (Maggie)
[569a] *He frowned that it was odd he couldn’t open the door.
V.78 GIST TEXTS do not represent what was actually said but indicate the content:
[570] The report presents the truth about conditions in Lesotho (African Primary Schools)
[571] Black people speak as one combined whole, directing ourselves to a common enemy (Steve Biko)
LABEL TEXTS merely indicate a particular sort of COMMUNICATION, without indicating either words or content:
[572] Michael Owen has lavished high praise upon his latest strike partner in £14m record buy Djibril Cisse.(Liverpool FC News)WWW
[573] The relaxed atmosphere breeds bantering conversation. (Independent)
[574] The mixture of cheap jokes and pretentious philosophising becomes increasingly hard to stomach (Daily Telegraph)
[575] French farmers staged an anti-British protest at Calais at the weekend, throwing produce and hurling insults at Britons coming off ferries (Today)
DISPOSITIVE TEXTS occur in the ACTIVE for doing something, usually PEJORATIVE, to somebody, again without representing the words or content:
[576] The Headmaster had shouted at him so loudly he was deaf for a week. (Endill)
[577] Kylie, said press reports, lost her cool and screamed at the intruders. (Kylie)
[578] The sledger cursed the dogs and swore at the television crew (Arctic Odyssey)
[579] She slandered her husband, her friends, and her own self. (Amnesty)
ENACTIVE TEXTS occur in the MEDIAL for producing speech or writing, also usually PEJORATIVE, using yourself as MEDIUM, whilst words or content do not get FOCUS.
[580] Cassie talked and talked until her throat ached and her mouth was dry (Strawberries)
[581] I lay on the floor on my stomach, scribbling away and laughing (Deborah Moggach)BNC
[582] I tramped round the room, blabbering with the excitement. (Midsummer Killing)
[583] Mrs Thatcher ranted and raved. It was typical of the way she conducts Cabinet Government. (Observer)
V.79 The PASSIVE can omit an irrelevant COMMUNICATOR [584], e.g., if the SUBJECT is the CIRCUMSTANTIAL “it” for “saying” [585], or the RECEIVER for “telling” [586].
[584] A story was told whose smear value demands immediate publication (Punch)
[585] It was said that the poet Shelley had been here to sail paper boats. (C.S. Lewis)
[586]
I was told one flight was full, and left the gate to mooch around. (Independent)
The ERGATIVE of “making say” infrequently has one human AGENT straightforwardly acting on another [587]. More often, the PROCESS expresses a factor “making people say” what they otherwise might not [588]; or some uncertainty about what factor could possibly have done so [589]. Also, a REFLEXIVE use occurs when people compel themselves to say something they would rather not [590]. And “making tell” can be used for two human AGENTS [591], maybe implying compulsion.
[587] his mother made him always say what he thought (Possession)
[588] “She’s strong”, said Rachaela. It was instinct which made her say it. (Dark Dance)
[589] “There’s nothing.” What on earth had made him say that? He sounded as if he were denying an affair. (Like Out)
[590] "Take care of your baby",Birdy made herself say cheerfully. "Jerk",she said, after they hung up. (Nobody’s Girl)WWW
[591 They grilled her until she was in hysterics and made her tell them anythng bad that any person they named had done. (Friends, Parents)WWW
V.80 As we saw for COGNITION (V.43), some types of COMMUNICATION imply the truth [592-93], whilst others do not [594]. Patently uncertain are many things “told” to a court [595].
[592] John Lyall admitted that Ipswich had been fortunate to beat Newcastle (Telegraph)
[593] Commons sources confirmed that Mrs Thatcher stood with a monitor to see how she appeared on television in the chamber. Her advisers are expected to groom her for question time (Independent)
[594] Ronald Reagan claimed that US presence in the Lebanon was “vitally important to the security of the United States and the Western world”. (Intelligence Game)
[595] Today his closest friends told the court Cranog Jones was always honest. But according to the prosecution, the Cheltenham magistrate is a blatant liar. […] He started up her Fiesta car at three in the morning, and fixed a pipe taking exhaust fumes from the garage into his wife's bedroom. (TV news)BNC
The British press plays it safest by FRAMING court proceedings (V.82).
V.81 COMMUNICATION readily “expresses” EMOTIONS:
[596] She shut herself in out of the drizzling rain, and expressed her delight with everything. […] Wasn’t Dublin just beautiful! (No Enemy)
[background: Christ Church Cathedral; lower right: Enya]
[597] Indian and Inuit leaders expressed anger over the result of the referendum. (Keesings)
[598] All those attending the lobby have expressed their outrage at the deepening crisis in housing (Leeds Diocesan Catholic Voice)BNC
[599] Peers expressed their sorrow at the separation of the Prince and Princess of Wales (Today)
EMOTION also animates the popular media (including Mills & Boon, natch) to scrounge up some daft VERBS of saying:
[600] “I have my connections”, he gleamed. (Imajica)
[601] “After all they've done for me”, he bit toughly, “I'd have far more compunction” (His Woman)
[602] He came back to the dressing room in tears. “What do you think?” he blubbed. (Kenneth Williams)
[603] “Where are you going?” he grated hotly, his eyes alive now, glittering dangerously. “To Steve, of course”, she rasped bitterly. (Love or Nothing)
[604] “What big blue eyes you have”, husked Lucenzo. (Mask of Deception)
Mercifully, these too cannot be converted to INDIRECT, as noted in IV.254 and V.80.
[601a] *He bit toughly that he’d have far more compunction.
[602a] *Williams came back and blubbed what did we think.
[603a] *He grated hotly where she was going.
[604a] *Lucenzo husked what big blue eyes she had.
V.82 On the other side of COMMUNICATION, “hearing that” and “reading that” often occur without the COMMUNICATOR [605-608], and undecidedness can increase with a dubious “somewhere” [609-610]. On the whole, what is “read” curries more authority than what is “heard”, especially when citing the Bible [608] or “taking as read” [612]. Also, a legal document can be "read" to apprise citizens of the "rights" [612a]
[605] I heard that his family once had money, but lost it in some way. (Seasons of My Life)
[606] I had heard that in the South things are better (English Crime)
[607] I read that the US is in the grip of Japanophobia following the purchase of Columbia Pictures by Sony. (Independent)
[608] We read that the apostles in Jerusalem sent Peter and John to them. (Church Planting)
[609] I heard somewhere that Frank Worthington claimed to sleep with a different woman before every match (Leeds United)BNC
[610] I r read omewhere that your body is warmer in the winter if you shave your legs. (Well-Woman)WWW
[612] Need to have it ratified by the Board. But you can take it as read that you have the contract. (Nudists)
[612a] While Martinez was wounded, the officers continually questioned him, without reading him his Miranda Rights, namely the right to remain silent (Paly Voice)
[Actually, the title comes not from the unforgettable Carmen Miranda, but from the forgotten Ernesto Miranda arrested for stealing $8 and forced by police to sign a confession of attempted rape; and from the appealed Supreme Count ruling for the right to remain silent. It was a very different Court in 1966.]
A COMMUNICATOR can be “heard” (but apparently not “read”) as an AGENT of “saying that” [613], and yet be left unspecified [614]. The interesting variation of “hearing oneself say” suggests speaking without firm INTENTION or CONTROL [615-616] — rather the opposite of “making oneself say” (V.79).
[613] I distinctly heard you say that some of my designs weren’t quite suitable. (Miracles)
[614] You sometimes hear people say that it is not worth eating differently (Get Slim)
[615] “Oh dear”, Ianthe heard herself saying, feebly, she felt, but it was difficult to know how best to express her sympathy. (Unsuitable Attachment)
[616]I heard myself saying that I had got so smashed I was sick. (Sexual Health)www
V.83 EMOTIONS again figure as effects of what you “hear” or “read” [617-18]. Anger can be expressed by just exclaiming that you “heard” something [619]. Fearsome warnings can be issued “not to let someone hear” what you just said [620].
[617] I am happy to hear that the UN security council has eased some sanctions against Iraq . (James McKenna)www
[618] I’m terribly sad to read that Michael Kelly has been killed in Iraq . (Virginia Postrel)
[619] “Dratted animal! He ought to be shot.” The old woman bed flashed her a look. “I heard that!” “You were meant to”, snapped Araminta instantly. (Hidden Flame)
[620] “Bit of a slut, if you ask me.” “Don’t let Barney hear you say that”. (Finishing Touch)
Like “told” back in [595], British legal proceedings can be safely reported as what was “heard”:
[621] Fireman Richard Pearson loved putting out fires so much that he started 11 of them himself, a court heard yesterday (Today)
Such FRAMES handily allow publishing courtroom data without judging the potential validity or truth of the COMMUNICATIONS (V.79).
V.84 These then are the PROCESSES I would propose to recognise for a functional LEXICOGRAMMAR of English, summarised in the Table shown here. The indented categories connected by commas are to be read vertically; the rest can be simply read horizontally straight across.
Again, each one could be described at higher DELICACY as a cluster of PROCESSES, steadily revealing richer interactions between LEXICON and GRAMMAR (cf. V.5). Even the sturdier PROTOTYPES go separate ways in some lexicogrammatical preferences, notably the “five senses” for PERCEPTION and the variegated TEXTS for COMMUNICATION.
V.85 Still, this rough outline was derived from attested and authentic samples of English in large corpora and the Internet, covering a wide span of times, regions, and varieties. As such, it should at least point in the direction of a LEXICOGRAMMAR that would merit being acknowledged as a correlate for exploring the more usual and limited “grammar” and a further account of its linguistic, cognitive, and social status.
Notes to Part V
1 See above all Michael Halliday, An Introduction to Functional Grammar: Second Revised Edition (London: Arnold, 1994), which I have revised in various terms and filled out with more engaging data.
2 English version quoted in Steve Biko’s “White Racism and Black Consciousness”, p. 61.
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